Sadigh Gallery: Ancient Egyptian Coffin/Sarcophagus

The term “Coffin” is usually applied to the rectangular or anthropoid container in which the Egyptians placed the mummified body, whereas the word “Sarcophagus” (Greek: “Flesh-Eating”) is used to refer only to the stone outer container, invariably encasing one or more coffins.  The distinction made between these two items of Egyptian funerary equipment is therefore essentially an artificial one, since both shared the same role of protecting the body of the deceased.  In terms of decoration and shape, coffins and sarcophagi drew on roughly the same iconographic stylistic repertoire.

The earliest burials in Egypt contain no coffins and were naturally desiccated by the hot sand.  The separation of the body of deceased from the surrounding sand by the use of a coffin or sarcophagus ironically led to the deterioration of the body, perhaps stimulating developments in mummification.  The religious purpose of the coffin was to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife, literally providing a “house” for the “Ka”.

The earliest coffins were baskets or simple plank constructions in which the body was placed in a flexed position.  From these developed and valuated house-shaped coffins that remained in use into the fourth Dynasty (2613 – 2494 BC).  At around this time, the Egyptians began to bury the deceased body in an extended position, perhaps because the increasingly common practice of evisceration made such an arrangement more suitable.  By the end of the Old Kingdom (2181 BC), food offerings were being painted on the inside of coffins as an extra means of providing sustenance for the deceased in the event of the tomb chapel being destroyed or neglected.  In the Old & Middle Kingdom, a pair of eyes was often painted on the side of the coffin that faced east when it was placed in the tomb.  It was evidently believed that the deceased could therefore look out of the coffin to see his or her offerings and the world from which he or she had passed, as well as to view the rising Sun. 

Decorated coffins became still more important in the First Intermediate Period (2181 – 2055 BC), when many tombs contained little mural decoration.  It was thus essential that coffins themselves should incorporate the basic elements of the tomb and by the Middle Kingdom (2055 – 1650 BC), they often incorporated revised extracts of the Pyramid Texts, known as the coffin texts.  This change reflects the increased identification of the afterlife with Osiris, rather than the Sun-God “Ra”.

Anthropoid coffins first appeared in the 12th Dynasty (1985 – 1795 BC), apparently serving as substitute bodies lest the original be destroyed.  With the New Kingdom (1550 – 1069 BC), this form of coffins became more popular and the shape became identified with Osiris himself; his beard and crossed arms sometimes being added.  The feathered, rishi coffins of the 17th and early 18th Dynasty were once thought to depict the wings of the goddess Isis, embracing her husband Osiris, but are now considered by some scholars to refer to the BA bird.  Rectangular coffins were effectively replaced by anthropoid types in the 18th Dynasty; but some of their decorative elements were retained.

In the Third Intermediate Period (1069 – 747 BC), coffins, papyri and stelae became the main vehicles for funerary scenes that had previously been carved and painted on the walls of tomb chapels.  The principal feature of most of the new scenes depicted on coffins was the Osirian and solar mythology surrounding the concept of rebirth, including the judgment of the deceased before Osiris and the journey into the underworld, the voyage of the Solar Bark and parts of the Litany of Ra.  Among the new scenes introduced in the decoration of coffins and on funerary papyri was the depiction of the separation of the earth-god Geb from the sky-goddess Nut.

The excavation of the 21st & 22nd Dynasty royal tombs at Tanis has provided a number of examples of the royal coffins of the period (although the sarcophagi were sometimes reused from the New Kingdom).  The cache of mummies of high priests of Amun at Deir el-Bahri has also yielded a large number of private coffins of the 21st Dynasty (1069 – 945 BC).  It was also from the end of the New Kingdom onwards that the interiors of the coffins began to be decorated again; beneath the lid-especially in the 22nd Dynasty (945 – 715 BC), there was often a representation of Nut, while the “goddess of the West”, Hathor, or the Djed Pillar began to be portrayed on the coffin floor.  During the Late Period, extracts from the Book of the Dead were sometimes also inscribed inside the coffin. 

In the 25th Dynasty a new repertoire of coffin types, usually consisting of sets of two or three (including an inner case with pedestal, an intermediate anthropoid outer coffin), was introduced, becoming established practice by the 26th Dynasty.  Late Period coffins were characterized by archaism, involving the reintroduction of the earlier styles of coffin decoration, such as the provision of the eye panel. 

There are comparatively few excavated burials dating from c.525 to 350 BC, but more coffins have survived from the succeeding phase (30th Dynasty and early Ptolemaic Period), when they typically have disproportionately large heads and wigs.  During the early Ptolemaic Period, many mummies were provided with cartonnage masks and plaques, fixed on to the body by strips of line.

Sadigh Gallery: Ancient Egyptian Palette

(Available at Sadigh Gallery: Cosmetic palette made from black basalt with a symbol to one side. Egyptians used intricately carved palettes to grind the pigments for eye makeup. The history of cosmetics goes back thousands of years. The bible, for example, describes the practice of anointing the head and body with oil. The most famous figure associated with cosmetics was Cleopatra VII, the last Queen of Egypt, who was noted for her skill in making and using cosmetics. Middle Kingdom. 2040-1786 BC. 8" x 4")

The Palette term used to refer to two distinct artifacts: cosmetic and scribal pallets.

Cosmetic/ceremonial palettes, usually of siltstone (greywacke), have been found in the form of grave goods in cemeteries as early as the Baldarian period (c. 5500 – 4000 BC).  They were used to grind pigments such as malachite or galena, from which eye-paint was made.  The early examples were simply rectangular in shape, but by the Naqada I period (c. 4000 – 3500 BC), they were generally carved into more elaborate geometric forms including a rhomboid which resembles the symbol of the later fertility god Minor, the schematic silhouettes or animals such as hippopotami and turtles (sometimes with inlaid eyes).

By this time, cosmetic palettes had almost certainly acquired ritualistic or magical connotations.  In the Naqada II period (c. 3500 – 3100 BC) the preferred shape tended to be the forms of fish or birds, rather than animals, and many were shield-shaped, with two birds’ heads at the top. 

By the terminal Predynastic period, the range of shapes of the smaller cosmetic palettes had become considerably reduced, but simultaneously a new and more elaborate ceremonial form began to be produced.  These palettes (usual oval or shield-shaped) were employed as votive items in temples rather than as grave goods, and a large number were found in the form of a cache in the Early Dynastic temple at Hierakonpolis.  They were carved with reliefs depicting the ideology and rituals of the emerging elite, and the quintessential surviving example is the “Narmer Palette”. 

The “Narmer Palette” was found in the so-called “main deposit” at Kom el-Ahmar, i.e. Hierakonpolis.  This is perhaps the most intensely studied of all Egyptian artifacts and the most well known.  This triangular piece of black basalt depicts a king whose name is given as Nar-Mer in the hieroglyphs. On the obverse he is shown wearing the white crown of the south and holding a mace about to crush the head of a northern foe, and on the reverse, the same figure is shown wearing the red crown of the north while a bull (a symbol of the pharaoh's power) rages below him, smashing the walls of a city and trampling yet another foe.  At first, it was taken for a plate commemorating a specific historical event, such as the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, or a military victory over some foreign people.  However,  later  research drift towards it being either a wholly symbolic event aimed at manifesting the King's power, or summarize the year in which it was made and presented to the temple.

Scribal palettes generally consisted of long rectangular pieces of wood or stone (averaging 30 cm long and 60 cm wide), each with a shallow central groove or slot to hold the reed bushes or pens and one or two circular depressions at one end, to hold cakes of pigment.  The hieroglyph used as the determinative for the words “scribe” and “writing” consisted of a set of scribes’ equipment, including a shorter version of the palette.

Luristan Bronzes

Luristan bronzes have been prized for their unique designs and fine craftsmanship since antiquity.  Geographically, Luristan is the central province in Iran’s western frontier, the area where production of richly decorated bronzes flourished from about 1200 to 800 B.C. The formidable terrain of the region, sweeping plains, and high valleys intersected by the Zagros Mountains, encouraged the development of small, separated communities in ancient times.  The economy of these communities was dependent upon horse breeding, some agriculture, and control of the north-south trade routes. By about 2500 B.C. these tribes lived in semi-permanent settlements, which became the early bronze working centers.  The Luristan smiths became masters of casting by the ‘cireperdue’ or ‘lost wax’ method.  This technique required the modeling of an object in wax, often over a clay core for stability, and then coating the wax with clay.  The subsequent firing of the piece hardened the clay, and melted the wax which ran out through prepared vents.  The resulting mold was then filled with molten metal and left to cool.  When the mold was broken away, the bronze piece was smoothes and finished as necessary.  The versatility of this method encouraged innovative design, and allowed for the production of a variety of bronze tools, implements, decorations and figures.  The tribes of western Persian were outstanding horsemen and warriors, and decorative horse bits, harness fittings, and rein rings were among their most interesting equipment.
Ingenious zoomorphic shapes appear on much of the Luristan bronze work. Fantastic animals with elongated bodies form handles and spouts of a variety of vessels.  The same animal forms appear as cult symbols on ceremonial pins and finials.  The “Master of Animals” design, often used on pins and finials is one of the most popular but baffling motifs.  A humanoid figure is flanked by a pair of mythical and rearing beasts, which in some instances he appears to be subduing.  The human figure has been equated with Gilgamesh and with the Mesopotamian “heroes”.  The origin of the whole motif is, however, maybe archaic, and evolved from an early stage in the religion.
The primary function of any metal industry in antiquity was the production of weapons and tools.   This, too, was an area in which the Luristan smiths excelled.  Their mastery of weapons included a wide variety of swords, daggers and spear points, as well as arrowheads, mace heads, and ax heads.
Bronze blades were relatively soft and required frequent re-sharpening, thus the whetstone became an important piece of equipment.
The first bronze blades were cast with a short tang, which was riveted to a simple wooden handle.  Very fine dagger blades were occasionally fitted with a separately cast bronze of copper hilt, that was then riveted to the tang.  Some of these blades have been found with cuneiform inscriptions from the Royal Houses of Babylon and Elam.
Even after the blade and hilt were cast as one piece (about 1200 B.C.) this style was copied and the rivets were cast as a design motif.  Eventually, blades were cast with a flanged hilt.  This allowed for a decorative inlay in the handle of bone, ivory or wood.  The Luristan bronze industry died out after 800 B.C. when the tribal aristocracy lost its power to the invading Medes, and the smiths lost their wealthy patrons.
Many fine examples of Luristan bronze work are, however, available to collectors today from miniature ceremonial animals to horse gear and swords and daggers.  

Ancient Greco-Roman Medical & Surgical Instruments

Physicians in the Classical World had access to a variety of medical & surgical instruments that were designed to aid them in their treatment of the sick. Several ancient texts mention the use of surgical tools and instruments used by doctors in antiquity. The precise date when each instrument was first employed is largely unknown. The most of the instruments seemed to have been available to Hippocrates (c. 460) and continued to be used throughout the late Roman Empire with several existing in a similar form still being used by physicians today.  The Greco-Roman Age covers the period when the Romans ruled the Greek World.  Greek medicine and surgery grew up side by side, as partners and medicine continued to develop under the Romans who had gained much of their medical knowledge from the Greeks; so much so that Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all free-born Greek physicians practicing in Rome.  The Romans easily conquered Macedonia and Greece in 197 BC but proclaimed “the freedom of Greece” the following year only to return in 167 BC to abolish the Macedonian kingdom that refused to follow their wishes.  Roman armies swept into Southern Greece taking action against those who disobeyed their orders. Another recognized period known as the Greco-Roman occurred from the time of the great physician, Galen, until the fall of the Roman Empire.  Toward the end of this era, Greek influence began to fade.  Only a few medical men were respected but most were little better off than slaves do. After a time, Roman medicine fell into the orbit of Byzantine Culture and lost the original virility inherited from the Greeks.
Physicians and dentists in the Ancient World had a variety of surgical instruments available to them in the treatment of the sick and a number of ancient manuscripts mention the use of surgical tools. Bone drills were used to remove diseased bone tissue and foreign objects of considerable thickness, such as a weapon, from a bone. Hooks were commonly used and came in two varieties, either sharp or blunt.  The sharp hooks were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that it could be extracted.  They were also used to retract the edges of the wounds. The spatula probe was used for the mixing, measuring and applying of different medications.  The medical scalpel was used to make a variety of incisions but it seemed to be particularly suited for making either deep or long cuts. Aetius, a 6th century physician, described using a forceps to crush the uvula before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.
Scalpels could be made of steel, bronze, or a combination of the two metals (such as a steel blade and a bronze handle). Ancient scalpels had almost the same form and function as their modern counterparts do today. The two long steel scalpels that make up the first and third columns of the accompanying image are examples of the most ordinary type of scalpel from antiquity. These long scalpels could be used to make a variety of incisions, but they seem to be particularly suited to making either deep or long cuts. The four bronze scalpels, which make up columns two and four, are generally referred to as "bellied scalpels." This variety of scalpel was another favorite of physicians in antiquity since the shape of its handle allowed more delicate and precise cuts to be made (such as incisions between ribs).
Hooks were another common instrument used regularly by Greek and Roman doctors. The hooks, the ancient doctors used, came in two basic varieties: sharp and blunt. Both of these types of hooks are still used by modern surgeons for many of the same purposes for which the ancient doctors first used them. For instance, blunt hooks were primarily used as probes for dissection and for raising blood vessels. Sharp hooks, were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that they could be extracted and to retract the edges of wounds.
The Forceps, with their finely toothed jaws, were probably designed to facilitate the amputation of the uvula. This procedure, as described by Aetius in the first half of the sixth century, called for the physician to crush the uvula with forceps before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.  Forceps also were used by ancient doctors to extract the small fragments of bone, which could not be grasped by the fingers. Naturally, physicians often used such forceps in conjunction with bone drills.
Bone drills were generally driven in their rotary motion by means of a thong in various configurations. Greek and Roman physicians used bone drills in order to excise diseased bone tissue from the skull and to remove foreign objects of considerable thickness (such as a weapon) from a bone.
Physicians in the Classical World employed catheters in order to open up a blocked urinary tract, which allowed urine to pass freely from the body. These early catheters were essentially hollow tubes made of steel or bronze and had two basic designs: one with a slight S curve for male patients and another straighter one for females. The same doctors also used similar shaped devices, which were solid, as opposed to hollow, in order to probe the bladder in search of calcifications.

Ancient Glass History

Little is known about the production of glass in the ancient world. One early source, Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 89), reported the tale of natron (soda) merchants who, when they stopped to prepare a meal, supported their cooking vessels on the beach with blocks from their cargo.  The heat of the fire fused natron and sand, and a new substance was formed. This, Pliny says, was the origin of glass.
Glass-like materials were used in Egypt long before the production of glass itself. Egyptian faience, a popular material used in the production of amulets and small vessels, was a mixture of quartz sand with an alkali binder. It was molded, and then fired, causing a bright glaze to migrate to the surface. Real glass is more difficult to produce, because its ingredients must be heated to a high enough temperature to melt and then fuse completely. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets contain some references to glass making, indicating that it was a very difficult and secret undertaking. There is no ancient recipe for the making of glass, but it may be that in an attempt to duplicate the glazes formed in pottery making, the mixture of sand, soda and lime bonded compatibly, thus forming the 4,000 year old lump of blue rod found near Eshuna, which dates from 2,000 BC, is the earliest glass that has been found.
In about 1,500 BC, the technique of “core forming” developed in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. This new method was an important breakthrough in glass making. It was a technique that remained in use for over a thousand years, allowed for the production of glass vessels in a thousand years, and allowed for the production of glass vessels in variety of shapes. A core of mud of about the same size as the completed vessel was placed on the end of an iron rod. A second rod was dipped into containers of colored molten glass, and the glass was wound around the core material. This process was repeated many times until the core was covered.  The next step was to wind bands of colored glass around the core glass and to comb them into a design. The final additions – the rim, the base and may be the handles – were added last. The piece was slowly cooled and then polished. It was a lengthy and expensive process, and core-formed glass was available only to rulers and nobility.
The Millefiori technique (Italian for “a thousand flowers”) was also known in Mesopotamia as early as 1500 BC. This method required a group of various colored glass rods to be placed in a cylindrical mold. They were heated and fused together, and were then pulled from a small tube, like taffy. This created a pattern that was then sliced and placed side by side into a decorative mold, in order to create the final shape. This method too was expensive and time consuming to produce and its colorful patterns were again available only to the wealthy.
Glass blowing was probably the greatest single advance in glass technology. This revolutionary process was discovered around the middle of the first century BC and seems to have been practiced from the first century AD on. It involved capturing a molten glass bubble on a hollow metal blowpipe and inflating it to the desired shape and size. It could be either blown free form or blown into a mold, or a combination of two. The speed and relative ease with which this technique could be handled opened new vistas for the production and use of glass in the ancient world.
Glass blowing developed at a time when the Roman Empire, under Augustus Caesar and his successors, wanted peace (Pax Romana), stability and a better way of life, and this included consumer goods. The combination of a new technology and a demand on the part of the Roman citizen allowed the new method to forge ahead, and blown glass began to rival pottery and metalwork, both in speed of production and in variety of shapes and sizes. Its smooth surface was easy to clean for reuse, eliminating the storage problem of porous pots.
Syria became the “glass factory” of the Roman Empire, and goods were shipped and stored in glass bottles and wine flowed from glass jugs. Blown glass was finally inexpensive and available to all.
Today, many examples of ancient Roman Glass are available to collectors. Unguent aria or “tear bottles”, as they are often called, are the most common items of Roman blown glass. They vary in size, but usually have a somewhat bulbous base with a long slender neck and a flat rim. The color varies from colorless to pale blue/ greenish hues, and they sometimes are covered with an iridescent patina. Unguent aria was used for perfumes, cosmetics, and oils, and is fine examples of ancient glass that can be collected today.

Egyptian Coffins & Sarcophagus

The term “Coffin” is usually applied to the rectangular or anthropoid container in which the Egyptians placed the mummified body, whereas the word “Sarcophagus” (Greek: “Flesh-Eating”) is used to refer only to the stone outer container, invariably encasing one or more coffins.  The distinction made between these two items of Egyptian funerary equipment is therefore essentially an artificial one, since both shared the same role of protecting the body of the deceased.  In terms of decoration and shape, coffins and sarcophagi drew on roughly the same iconographic stylistic repertoire.
The earliest burials in Egypt contain no coffins and were naturally desiccated by the hot sand.  The separation of the body of deceased from the surrounding sand by the use of a coffin or sarcophagus ironically led to the deterioration of the body, perhaps stimulating developments in mummification.  The religious purpose of the coffin was to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife, literally providing a “house” for the “Ka”.
The earliest coffins were baskets or simple plank constructions in which the body was placed in a flexed position.  From these developed and valuated house-shaped coffins that remained in use into the fourth Dynasty (2613 – 2494 BC).  At around this time, the Egyptians began to bury the deceased body in an extended position, perhaps because the increasingly common practice of evisceration made such an arrangement more suitable.  By the end of the Old Kingdom (2181 BC), food offerings were being painted on the inside of coffins as an extra means of providing sustenance for the deceased in the event of the tomb chapel being destroyed or neglected.  In the Old & Middle Kingdom, a pair of eyes was often painted on the side of the coffin that faced east when it was placed in the tomb.  It was evidently believed that the deceased could therefore look out of the coffin to see his or her offerings and the world from which he or she had passed, as well as to view the rising Sun.
Decorated coffins became still more important in the First Intermediate Period (2181 – 2055 BC), when many tombs contained little mural decoration.  It was thus essential that coffins themselves should incorporate the basic elements of the tomb and by the Middle Kingdom (2055 – 1650 BC), they often incorporated revised extracts of the Pyramid Texts, known as the coffin texts.  This change reflects the increased identification of the afterlife with Osiris, rather than the Sun-God “Ra”.
Anthropoid coffins first appeared in the 12th Dynasty (1985 – 1795 BC), apparently serving as substitute bodies lest the original be destroyed.  With the New Kingdom (1550 – 1069 BC), this form of coffins became more popular and the shape became identified with Osiris himself; his beard and crossed arms sometimes being added.  The feathered, rishi coffins of the 17th and early 18th Dynasty were once thought to depict the wings of the goddess Isis, embracing her husband Osiris, but are now considered by some scholars to refer to the BA bird.  Rectangular coffins were effectively replaced by anthropoid types in the 18th Dynasty; but some of their decorative elements were retained.
In the Third Intermediate Period (1069 – 747 BC), coffins, papyri and stelae became the main vehicles for funerary scenes that had previously been carved and painted on the walls of tomb chapels.  The principal feature of most of the new scenes depicted on coffins was the Osirian and solar mythology surrounding the concept of rebirth, including the judgment of the deceased before Osiris and the journey into the underworld, the voyage of the Solar Bark and parts of the Litany of Ra.  Among the new scenes introduced in the decoration of coffins and on funerary papyri was the depiction of the separation of the earth-god Geb from the sky-goddess Nut.
The excavation of the 21st & 22nd Dynasty royal tombs at Tanis has provided a number of examples of the royal coffins of the period (although the sarcophagi were sometimes reused from the New Kingdom).  The cache of mummies of high priests of Amun at Deir el-Bahri has also yielded a large number of private coffins of the 21st Dynasty (1069 – 945 BC).  It was also from the end of the New Kingdom onwards that the interiors of the coffins began to be decorated again; beneath the lid-especially in the 22nd Dynasty (945 – 715 BC), there was often a representation of Nut, while the “goddess of the West”, Hathor, or the Djed Pillar began to be portrayed on the coffin floor.  During the Late Period, extracts from the Book of the Dead were sometimes also inscribed inside the coffin.
In the 25th Dynasty a new repertoire of coffin types, usually consisting of sets of two or three (including an inner case with pedestal, an intermediate anthropoid outer coffin), was introduced, becoming established practice by the 26th Dynasty.  Late Period coffins were characterized by archaism, involving the reintroduction of the earlier styles of coffin decoration, such as the provision of the eye panel.
There are comparatively few excavated burials dating from c.525 to 350 BC, but more coffins have survived from the succeeding phase (30th Dynasty and early Ptolemaic Period), when they typically have disproportionately large heads and wigs.  During the early Ptolemaic Period, many mummies were provided with cartonnage masks and plaques, fixed on to the body by strips of line. 

The Phoenicians

The Phoenicians were enigmatic people, who left little in the way of written records. Much of what we know of them from ancient times was recorded by Greek and Roman historians who mentioned their seamanship and shrewd business dealings.
Napoleon III put modern historians in touch with the Phoenicians.  While subduing a revolt in Syria, he called upon the French scholar, Ernest Renan, to lead an expedition to the area, much as Napoleon the Great had done some fifty years earlier when he brought a group of scholars to Egypt during his campaign.
Because of Renan’s interest in Semitic languages, he was particularly keen on investigating the site of Byblos.  In addition to being a major Phoenician port, the name held linguistic implications.  “Byblos” the Greek word for papyrus, leads to “biblion” or book, while lead to “bible”.  Renan was pursuing an Old Testament reference, “Gebel”, which was the Semitic name for Byblos.  The trail ultimately lead to nothing for Renan’s linguistic research, but during the investigation he found several granite slabs covered with Egyptian hieroglyphs, and a bas-relief, which he believed to be the goddess Hathor.  The relief was, in fact, Baalat-Global the Phoenician earth-mother goddess.  This find was the beginning of the rediscovery of ancient Phoenicia.
Later, excavations that are more extensive produced a series of semi-intact royal tombs that yielded a glimpse of Phoenician treasure, including vessels of gold, silver, and obsidian, sandals and breastplates of gold, and an array of royal paraphernalia.  The most important find, however, was an inscription in the Phoenician alphabet on an elaborate sarcophagus:
“This coffin was made by Ithobaal, the son of Ahiram, King of Byblos, as the eternal resting place for his father.  If any ruler or governor or general attacks Byblos and touches this coffin, his scepter will be broken…”
This discovery in 1922 touched off a wave of excavation in Byblos and a renewed interest in the origin of the Phoenicians. Since ancient times, there has been speculation as to the origin of the Phoenicians.  The Greeks were particularly puzzled by the Phoenicians who suddenly appeared and built an empire in their midst.
They, in fact, gave them the name, “phoinikes” loosely translated as “red people” from the color of their land.  The Phoenicians called themselves Canaanites, and modern researchers tell us they were the descendents of two groups, the early Canaanites who inhabited the coast of Lebanon, and the Sea People who invaded Lebanon about 1200 BC.
The early Canaanites had a limited ship building technology, sailing only flat-bottomed barges that hugged the shore.  The invading Sea People, some of whom stayed on, introduced among other things, a much more sophisticated maritime technology.  Thus their descendents, the Phoenicians, appeared on the scene with an established maritime tradition, and the technology to build ships with a keeled hull.  This allowed them to sail the open seas, and as a result, the Phoenicians developed a flourishing sea trade.
They settled along the coast of Lebanon, in a loose federation of city-states that were built on islands of rocky promontories, which provided natural harbors for shipbuilding and trade.  The cities, Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, studded the seacoast like jewels, and their wealth became legendary.  At the height of their trading empire, they imported copper from Cyprus; linen from Egypt; ivory from India; tin from Spain; horses from Anatolia; and peacocks from Africa.  They became famous for their highly prized purple dye extracted from the murex snail, and for the fine timber cut from their forests.
Their major cultural contribution was their alphabet.  It consisted of 22 consonants, and was the foundation of our English alphabet, and it was the core for Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac script.
The Phoenicians were skilled artisans noted for their fine crafts, often “borrowing” a basic idea or technology and improving on it.  The craft of glass making was raised to a fine art by Phoenician artisans, and they may have been the first to develop blown glass.  Their terracotta vessels and pots often show a thoughtful refinement of shape, as do their votive statues.
The Phoenicians worshipped a triad of deities, each having different names and attributes depending upon the city in which they were worshipped, although their basic nature remained the same.  The primary god was El, protector of the universe, but often called Baal.
The son, Baal or Melqart, symbolized the annual cycle of vegetation and was associated with the female deity Astarte in her role as the maternal goddess.  She was called Asherar-yam, Our Lady of the Sea, and in Byblos, she was Baalat, our dear lady.  Astarte was linked with mother goddesses of neighboring cultures, in her role as combined heavenly mother and each mother.  Cult statues of Astarte in many different forms were left as votive offerings in shrines and sanctuaries as prayers for good harvest, for children, and for protection and tranquility in the home.  The Phoenician triad was incorporated in varying degrees by their neighbors and Baal and Astarte eventually took on the look of Greek deities.
The Phoenicians reached the peak of their culture around 1,000 BC, when they had established trading colonies in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Africa and Spain.  Their North African city of Cartage was founded about 800 BC and remained strong until the sack of the Romans in 146 BC.  The great city-states of Phoenicia ended with the fall of Tyre to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 573 BC.  The glory of the Phoenicians was in decline, when in 332 BC Alexander the Great conquered Tyre and the remnants of the Phoenician culture were swept into the Hellenistic Empire.

Ancient Glass History

Little is known about the production of glass in the ancient world. One early source, Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 89), reported the tale of natron (soda) merchants who, when they stopped to prepare a meal, supported their cooking vessels on the beach with blocks from their cargo.  The heat of the fire fused natron and sand, and a new substance was formed. This, Pliny says, was the origin of glass.
Glass-like materials were used in Egypt long before the production of glass itself. Egyptian faience, a popular material used in the production of amulets and small vessels, was a mixture of quartz sand with an alkali binder. It was molded, and then fired, causing a bright glaze to migrate to the surface. Real glass is more difficult to produce, because its ingredients must be heated to a high enough temperature to melt and then fuse completely. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets contain some references to glass making, indicating that it was a very difficult and secret undertaking. There is no ancient recipe for the making of glass, but it may be that in an attempt to duplicate the glazes formed in pottery making, the mixture of sand, soda and lime bonded compatibly, thus forming the 4,000 year old lump of blue rod found near Eshuna, which dates from 2,000 BC, is the earliest glass that has been found.
In about 1,500 BC, the technique of “core forming” developed in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. This new method was an important breakthrough in glass making. It was a technique that remained in use for over a thousand years, allowed for the production of glass vessels in a thousand years, and allowed for the production of glass vessels in variety of shapes. A core of mud of about the same size as the completed vessel was placed on the end of an iron rod. A second rod was dipped into containers of colored molten glass, and the glass was wound around the core material. This process was repeated many times until the core was covered.  The next step was to wind bands of colored glass around the core glass and to comb them into a design. The final additions – the rim, the base and may be the handles – were added last. The piece was slowly cooled and then polished. It was a lengthy and expensive process, and core-formed glass was available only to rulers and nobility.
The Millefiori technique (Italian for “a thousand flowers”) was also known in Mesopotamia as early as 1500 BC. This method required a group of various colored glass rods to be placed in a cylindrical mold. They were heated and fused together, and were then pulled from a small tube, like taffy. This created a pattern that was then sliced and placed side by side into a decorative mold, in order to create the final shape. This method too was expensive and time consuming to produce and its colorful patterns were again available only to the wealthy.
Glass blowing was probably the greatest single advance in glass technology. This revolutionary process was discovered around the middle of the first century BC and seems to have been practiced from the first century AD on. It involved capturing a molten glass bubble on a hollow metal blowpipe and inflating it to the desired shape and size. It could be either blown free form or blown into a mold, or a combination of two. The speed and relative ease with which this technique could be handled opened new vistas for the production and use of glass in the ancient world.
Glass blowing developed at a time when the Roman Empire, under Augustus Caesar and his successors, wanted peace (Pax Romana), stability and a better way of life, and this included consumer goods. The combination of a new technology and a demand on the part of the Roman citizen allowed the new method to forge ahead, and blown glass began to rival pottery and metalwork, both in speed of production and in variety of shapes and sizes. Its smooth surface was easy to clean for reuse, eliminating the storage problem of porous pots.
Syria became the “glass factory” of the Roman Empire, and goods were shipped and stored in glass bottles and wine flowed from glass jugs. Blown glass was finally inexpensive and available to all.
Today, many examples of ancient Roman Glass are available to collectors. Unguent aria or “tear bottles”, as they are often called, are the most common items of Roman blown glass. They vary in size, but usually have a somewhat bulbous base with a long slender neck and a flat rim. The color varies from colorless to pale blue/ greenish hues, and they sometimes are covered with an iridescent patina. Unguent aria was used for perfumes, cosmetics, and oils, and is fine examples of ancient glass that can be collected today.

Sumerian Foundation Cones

The Renaissance of Sumerian culture under the Kings of the third dynasty of Ur (2112 – 2004 BC) saw Mesopotamian bureaucracy and record keeping develop to a peak. The recovery of cast archives from the city states of Sumer such as Puzrish-dagan (modern drehem), Lagash (al hiba), Ur and Umma (jokha) has provided sumerologists with a super abundance of source material that gives information on many aspects of social and economic history.
The Sumerian Foundation Cone is an important piece of ancient Sumerian history.  Decorating the walls of temples with a pattern of small clay nails was a feature of the Sumerian early dynastic period. To insure that the temples of various Gods would last forever, they were built on sacred ground and the foundations were laid with great ceremony.  Special objects were carefully placed in the foundation and walls.  This foundation cone was one of the types of special objects that were commonly used.  They were usually covered with inscriptions and dedications to that event.  The cones were embedded into Temple foundations and usually gave the names of the Ruler and to what Gods the temple in question was dedicated to, so that if it fell into disrepair, it may be later rebuilt and re-dedicated accordingly.
Writing in ancient Mesopotamia evolved in response to a need for accurate record keeping.  Once the idea communicated by a series of consistent symbols was understood, the script was developed and was quickly pressed into practical service.  Cuneiform script evolved directly from picture drawings and became more and more stylized until a standard script was developed.  The first known cuneiform texts are from the ancient city of Uruk, in southern Iraq and dates from 3,000 BC.  They reveal a complex business structure already in operation.
Side by side with the economic texts were dedication texts.  The practice of consecrating the foundations of new buildings seems to have started almost as early as building itself.  In order to insure that the sanctuaries of the various Gods would last forever, they were built on sacred ground and the foundations were laid with great ceremony.  Special deposit objects were carefully placed in the foundations and walls.  Foundation deposits took many forms and inscribed clay cone and nails were often placed in the corners, and under entrance halls.  The inscriptions usually named the King and the deity to whom the sanctuary was being dedicated.
We have acquired a collection of ancient Babylonian cuneiform clay cones dating from 2,000 – 1,000 BC each with its own translation.  These cones are made of terracotta and stand from four to six inches tall.  Each on is mounted on a custom-made base.

Ancient Mesopotamia

The word “Mesopotamia” is in origin a Greek name (mesos ‘middle’ and potamos ‘river’, so ‘land between the rivers’). The name is used for the area watered by the Euphrates and Tigris and its tributaries, roughly comprising modern Irak and part of Syria. South of modern Baghdad, the alluvial plains of the rivers were called the land of Sumer and Akkad in the third millennium. Sumer is the most southern part, while the land of Akkad is the area around modern Baghdad, where the Euphrates and Tigris are close to each other. In the second millennium, both regions together are called Babylonia, a mostly flat country. The territory in the north is called Assyria, with the city Assur as center. It borders to the mountains.
Two cultural groups form the principle elements in the population of Mesopotamia before the beginning of history and in the millennium thereafter (the 3rd millennium BCE). These are the Sumerians and the Akkadians. They lived peacefully together and created in mutual fertilization, by symbiosis and osmosis, the conditions for a common high civilization. Mesopotamian sources in all periods seem to be free of strong racial ideologies or ethnic stereotypes. Enemies, both groups and individuals, may be cursed and reviled heavily, but this applies more strongly to the ruler of a nearby city than to one of a remote territory.
(Semi-) nomads in the Near East. Even at the time that a large part of the population in Mesopotamia had a sedentary (non-migratory) life in settlements; large groups of people (nomads) at the same time are migrating. Nomads roam from place to place in search for pasture and moving with the season. Semi-nomads graze their small livestock near the fields of the settlements, often trading for goods obtained elsewhere and having all kinds of other interactions. This characteristic is still present in the Near East today. Nomads leave little archeological trace and are illiterate, so not much is known about them by direct means. However, some description does appear in written form: recorded by the Sumerians and later by the Akkadians. Some of the (semi-)nomads, either as individuals or as groups, mix with the sedentary population or become sedentary themselves. In times of political or economical crisis, they may do so by force, but they adapt quickly to the current civilization and even to the dominant language. Their increased influence on the society is manifested by a change in type of personal names. Sometimes the names are the only remains of their original language. In their new positions, they often stimulate further cultural development.
Akkadians, speaking a Semitic language, may have been present in Mesopotamia since the time the Sumerians arrived, or they may have diffused into the region later. Their culture intermingled and they must have been living peacefully together. On Sumerian clay tablets dated around 2900-2800 BCE found in Fara, Semitic (Akkadian) names are attested for the first time. It concerns the names of kings in the city Kish. Kish is in the north of Babylonia where according to the Sumerian King Lists `kingship descended again from heaven' after the great Flood. The proper names often contain animal names like zuqiqïpum `scorpion' and kalbum `dog'. Kings with Semitic names are the first postdiluvial kings to rule Kish. They started the first historical period called the Early Dynastic Period.
A few centuries later the first Akkadian king Sargon of Akkad ruled over an empire that included a large part of Mesopotamia. Apparently, Semitic speaking people have lived for centuries amidst the Sumerians and gradually became an integral part of the Sumerian culture. We do not hear much about them in the first part of the third millennium, because the (scholarly) language used in writing is Sumerian.
Mesopotamia has no natural boundaries and is difficult to defend. The influence of neighboring countries is large. Throughout the history of Mesopotamia trade contacts, slow diffusion of foreign tribes and military confrontations have been of great influence.
In the west: city of Ebla, the discovery in the third millennium city Ebla took Assyriology by surprise. The extent of the Sumerian culture in the third millennium was not known, but not expected to go so far west. Ebla is situated at Tell Mardikh 65 km south of Aleppo in Syria and appeared to be an urban culture in the middle of the 3rd millennium in the far west of Mesopotamia. The site shows impressive archeological remains (royal palace) and has a rich archive of cuneiform tablets, which attests a new (western) Semitic language (called Eblaite) different from and even slightly older than Old Akkadian. 

Cylinder Seals

Cylinder seals were wonderful, small objects that are incised with graphic images and sometimes writings that were the “signature” of dignitaries, officials, and the upper class in the ancient Near East.  They are made of hard stones, often black or dark green, but also of Lapis Lazuli, chalcedony, agate, jasper, marble, carnelian and crystal.
Cylinder seals are the only object from the ancient Near East surviving in quantity over the entire period.  Therefore, for the history of art, they are unique.  In addition, some carry inscriptions naming the ancient owners, or giving other valuable information, which is also unique since captions on objects are extremely rare in this area and period. Since cylinder seals are small and mostly made of stone, many have survived intact, while other objects such as large sculpture in the round and large stone reliefs have rarely survived intact, if at all.  Victorious armies often destroyed them of set plan, or plunderers and vandals as well as the elements took a toll of them over the centuries.  Thus, a major collection of cylinder seals has an importance well beyond the size and bulk of the objects.
Cylinder seals are somewhat a kin to Chinese scrolls in that they need to be “unraveled”, or “rolled out”.  Because they cannot be seen completely without turning them, they are sort of early animations. Some have one continuous scene, others are “compartmentalized”, and some have inscriptions.  Many of the earliest ones have simple geometric patterns, and there are many traditional scenes involving nobility, Gods, hunters, and beasts.  Most are meant to be scrolled horizontally.  There are small seals and large seals, some lean and some fat.  In many instances, the incised images are very hard to discern directly from the seal, often because of the stone’s particular coloration, and most seals that are auctioned nowadays come with a gray clay tablet on which the seal’s impression has been made, which makes it easier to visualize.  Remarkably, the three-dimensionality of the carving is usually quite pronounced.  Collectors prize the quality of the images, but Surena collection also included many that were of historical importance because of style or specific inscriptions.
Cylinder seals were pressed into wet clay to leave an impression of the design in order to seal vessels, consignments of goods and the door latches of storerooms so that it could be ascertained whether the contents had been tampered with.  People in the ancient Near East created seals around 3000 BC.  The early seals were “stamp seals” and had one or more flat sides depicting a design.  By 3200 BC, seals were made in cylinder form that permitted the seal to be rolled over wet clay to produce a continuous image or frieze. The primary use of seals was to designate ownership. They were impressed on the clay that sealed storage jars and on lumps of clay wrapped around ropes securing bales of goods.  When the clay hardened, the impression became a permanent record, a sign of ownership.  The shape and size of cylinder seals, the type of material used, and the designs carved into the surface varied according to period and area.

Mummification

Egyptians believed that the body had to be intact and preserved in order to gain entrance to the Netherworld.   Humans, as well as animals, were mummified with great care.  In ancient Egypt, hundreds of yards of linen were used to carefully wrap a mummy.  The exact arrangement of the rolls and shrouds of linen varied a lot from period to period and can be helpful in dating mummies.  Protective amulets and sometimes the deceased person’s jewelry were placed between the layers of linen.  At the same time, the linen was constantly brushed with a sticky, liquid resin.  This glued the bandages together and made them slowly stiffen as they dried.  Approximately 15 days were set aside for the wrapping and the whole process was accompanied by much prayer and ritual.  The embalmed bodies of the dead were wrapped for protection before they were deposited into coffins called sarcophagi, which were usually made of wood.
This wrapping, made of layers of linen or papyrus, stiffened with gesso (plaster) and then painted with bright multi-colored decoration that carried symbolic significance is called “cartonnage.”  These cartonnage pieces were used for covering the head and the torso, the most significant elements of the cartonnage in that they protected the most vital areas of the deceased’s body.
Mummification was an important aspect of the ancient Egyptian religion.  During the Ptolemaic and Roman periods in Egypt, the custom of leaving mummified animals as votive offerings in cult sanctuaries became extremely in vogue.  At the same time, the art of decorative wrappings ascended new heights, with intricate designs being incorporated into linen folds.  Mummified animals were purchased from temple priests and left by petitioners who wished special favors from a God.

Sadigh Gallery gives a new dimension to the concept of collecting artifacts

Collecting different forms of ancient art is one of the favorite pastimes in the recent era.  Some of them even make themselves successful in their profession through this hobby.  For the starting collectors, one thing to consider carefully before starting any collection, is to access the most authentic resource.
Sadigh Gallery Ancient Art is one of the most reliable galleries that deal in ancient artifacts in the United States.  Boasting thousands of antiquities, varying from objects as small as ancient beads to larger pieces such Egyptian sarcophagus or coffins, Sadigh Gallery has been successfully in business in New York City’s 5th Avenue--the heart of commerce--for more than 30 years.  Most of Sadigh Gallery’s collections come from different estates or private collectors, and are offered with certificates of authenticity. Although Sadigh Gallery is mainly a mail-order business—and the very first one in the nation that deals in ancient antiquities—its door is also open to the public.  Because of the nature of mail-order business, the gallery has customers in every part of the United States. Some customers even make an arrangement to visit the gallery when they plan their trip to New York City from faraway states or overseas.   Visitors can have an access to wide range of antiquities from different cultures, and they are welcome to closely examine before making purchases by lifting and touching the artifacts on display.
While collecting ancient antiquities is often viewed as an expensive hobby, Sadigh Gallery attempts to revolutionize that view by offering artifacts at more affordable prices. Despite the impression that old things are more valuable, Sadigh Gallery claims that is not necessarily correct.  Not all artifacts have the value of gold or diamond. For example, certain antiquities may be discovered among the burial grounds of commoners, or materials are simply not valuable from historical perspective.  In such cases, the gallery offers their antiquities for less expensive prices. Some beautiful pieces that you may see behind the glass cases in museums can be purchased at as little price as a teenager’s allowances.  
Sadigh Gallery firmly believes that not all ancient artifacts should be locked away in museums, but also they should be more available to anyone with interest in ancient cultures and history.  The gallery certainly makes it easier for private collectors, both amateurs and professionals, and institutions to enhance their collection by offering with lower prices on most of their artifacts.
Sadigh Gallery is located in New York City, New York.  For more information about the gallery or its hour of operation, please contact the gallery at toll free number (800)426-2007, or visit the gallery website/ online store www.sadighgallery.com. 

Egyptian Coffins & Sarcophagus

The term “Coffin” is usually applied to the rectangular or anthropoid container in which the Egyptians placed the mummified body, whereas the word “Sarcophagus” (Greek: “Flesh-Eating”) is used to refer only to the stone outer container, invariably encasing one or more coffins.  The distinction made between these two items of Egyptian funerary equipment is therefore essentially an artificial one, since both shared the same role of protecting the body of the deceased.  In terms of decoration and shape, coffins and sarcophagi drew on roughly the same iconographic stylistic repertoire.
The earliest burials in Egypt contain no coffins and were naturally desiccated by the hot sand.  The separation of the body of deceased from the surrounding sand by the use of a coffin or sarcophagus ironically led to the deterioration of the body, perhaps stimulating developments in mummification.  The religious purpose of the coffin was to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife, literally providing a “house” for the “Ka”.
The earliest coffins were baskets or simple plank constructions in which the body was placed in a flexed position.  From these developed and valuated house-shaped coffins that remained in use into the fourth Dynasty (2613 – 2494 BC).  At around this time, the Egyptians began to bury the deceased body in an extended position, perhaps because the increasingly common practice of evisceration made such an arrangement more suitable.  By the end of the Old Kingdom (2181 BC), food offerings were being painted on the inside of coffins as an extra means of providing sustenance for the deceased in the event of the tomb chapel being destroyed or neglected.  In the Old & Middle Kingdom, a pair of eyes was often painted on the side of the coffin that faced east when it was placed in the tomb.  It was evidently believed that the deceased could therefore look out of the coffin to see his or her offerings and the world from which he or she had passed, as well as to view the rising Sun.
Decorated coffins became still more important in the First Intermediate Period (2181 – 2055 BC), when many tombs contained little mural decoration.  It was thus essential that coffins themselves should incorporate the basic elements of the tomb and by the Middle Kingdom (2055 – 1650 BC), they often incorporated revised extracts of the Pyramid Texts, known as the coffin texts.  This change reflects the increased identification of the afterlife with Osiris, rather than the Sun-God “Ra”.
Anthropoid coffins first appeared in the 12th Dynasty (1985 – 1795 BC), apparently serving as substitute bodies lest the original be destroyed.  With the New Kingdom (1550 – 1069 BC), this form of coffins became more popular and the shape became identified with Osiris himself; his beard and crossed arms sometimes being added.  The feathered, rishi coffins of the 17th and early 18th Dynasty were once thought to depict the wings of the goddess Isis, embracing her husband Osiris, but are now considered by some scholars to refer to the BA bird.  Rectangular coffins were effectively replaced by anthropoid types in the 18th Dynasty; but some of their decorative elements were retained.
In the Third Intermediate Period (1069 – 747 BC), coffins, papyri and stelae became the main vehicles for funerary scenes that had previously been carved and painted on the walls of tomb chapels.  The principal feature of most of the new scenes depicted on coffins was the Osirian and solar mythology surrounding the concept of rebirth, including the judgment of the deceased before Osiris and the journey into the underworld, the voyage of the Solar Bark and parts of the Litany of Ra.  Among the new scenes introduced in the decoration of coffins and on funerary papyri was the depiction of the separation of the earth-god Geb from the sky-goddess Nut.
The excavation of the 21st & 22nd Dynasty royal tombs at Tanis has provided a number of examples of the royal coffins of the period (although the sarcophagi were sometimes reused from the New Kingdom).  The cache of mummies of high priests of Amun at Deir el-Bahri has also yielded a large number of private coffins of the 21st Dynasty (1069 – 945 BC).  It was also from the end of the New Kingdom onwards that the interiors of the coffins began to be decorated again; beneath the lid-especially in the 22nd Dynasty (945 – 715 BC), there was often a representation of Nut, while the “goddess of the West”, Hathor, or the Djed Pillar began to be portrayed on the coffin floor.  During the Late Period, extracts from the Book of the Dead were sometimes also inscribed inside the coffin.
In the 25th Dynasty a new repertoire of coffin types, usually consisting of sets of two or three (including an inner case with pedestal, an intermediate anthropoid outer coffin), was introduced, becoming established practice by the 26th Dynasty.  Late Period coffins were characterized by archaism, involving the reintroduction of the earlier styles of coffin decoration, such as the provision of the eye panel.
There are comparatively few excavated burials dating from c.525 to 350 BC, but more coffins have survived from the succeeding phase (30th Dynasty and early Ptolemaic Period), when they typically have disproportionately large heads and wigs.  During the early Ptolemaic Period, many mummies were provided with cartonnage masks and plaques, fixed on to the body by strips of line.

Luristan Bronzes

Luristan bronzes have been prized for their unique designs and fine craftsmanship since antiquity.  Geographically, Luristan is the central province in Iran’s western frontier, the area where production of richly decorated bronzes flourished from about 1200 to 800 B.C. The formidable terrain of the region, sweeping plains, and high valleys intersected by the Zagros Mountains, encouraged the development of small, separated communities in ancient times.  The economy of these communities was dependent upon horse breeding, some agriculture, and control of the north-south trade routes. By about 2500 B.C. these tribes lived in semi-permanent settlements, which became the early bronze working centers.  The Luristan smiths became masters of casting by the ‘cireperdue’ or ‘lost wax’ method.  This technique required the modeling of an object in wax, often over a clay core for stability, and then coating the wax with clay.  The subsequent firing of the piece hardened the clay, and melted the wax which ran out through prepared vents.  The resulting mold was then filled with molten metal and left to cool.  When the mold was broken away, the bronze piece was smoothes and finished as necessary.  The versatility of this method encouraged innovative design, and allowed for the production of a variety of bronze tools, implements, decorations and figures.  The tribes of western Persian were outstanding horsemen and warriors, and decorative horse bits, harness fittings, and rein rings were among their most interesting equipment.
Ingenious zoomorphic shapes appear on much of the Luristan bronze work. Fantastic animals with elongated bodies form handles and spouts of a variety of vessels.  The same animal forms appear as cult symbols on ceremonial pins and finials.  The “Master of Animals” design, often used on pins and finials is one of the most popular but baffling motifs.  A humanoid figure is flanked by a pair of mythical and rearing beasts, which in some instances he appears to be subduing.  The human figure has been equated with Gilgamesh and with the Mesopotamian “heroes”.  The origin of the whole motif is, however, maybe archaic, and evolved from an early stage in the religion.
The primary function of any metal industry in antiquity was the production of weapons and tools.   This, too, was an area in which the Luristan smiths excelled.  Their mastery of weapons included a wide variety of swords, daggers and spear points, as well as arrowheads, mace heads, and ax heads.
Bronze blades were relatively soft and required frequent re-sharpening, thus the whetstone became an important piece of equipment.
The first bronze blades were cast with a short tang, which was riveted to a simple wooden handle.  Very fine dagger blades were occasionally fitted with a separately cast bronze of copper hilt, that was then riveted to the tang.  Some of these blades have been found with cuneiform inscriptions from the Royal Houses of Babylon and Elam.
Even after the blade and hilt were cast as one piece (about 1200 B.C.) this style was copied and the rivets were cast as a design motif.  Eventually, blades were cast with a flanged hilt.  This allowed for a decorative inlay in the handle of bone, ivory or wood.  The Luristan bronze industry died out after 800 B.C. when the tribal aristocracy lost its power to the invading Medes, and the smiths lost their wealthy patrons.
Many fine examples of Luristan bronze work are, however, available to collectors today from miniature ceremonial animals to horse gear and swords and daggers.  

Ancient Greco-Roman Medical & Surgical Instruments

Physicians in the Classical World had access to a variety of medical & surgical instruments that were designed to aid them in their treatment of the sick. Several ancient texts mention the use of surgical tools and instruments used by doctors in antiquity. The precise date when each instrument was first employed is largely unknown. The most of the instruments seemed to have been available to Hippocrates (c. 460) and continued to be used throughout the late Roman Empire with several existing in a similar form still being used by physicians today.  The Greco-Roman Age covers the period when the Romans ruled the Greek World.  Greek medicine and surgery grew up side by side, as partners and medicine continued to develop under the Romans who had gained much of their medical knowledge from the Greeks; so much so that Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all free-born Greek physicians practicing in Rome.  The Romans easily conquered Macedonia and Greece in 197 BC but proclaimed “the freedom of Greece” the following year only to return in 167 BC to abolish the Macedonian kingdom that refused to follow their wishes.  Roman armies swept into Southern Greece taking action against those who disobeyed their orders. Another recognized period known as the Greco-Roman occurred from the time of the great physician, Galen, until the fall of the Roman Empire.  Toward the end of this era, Greek influence began to fade.  Only a few medical men were respected but most were little better off than slaves do. After a time, Roman medicine fell into the orbit of Byzantine Culture and lost the original virility inherited from the Greeks.
Physicians and dentists in the Ancient World had a variety of surgical instruments available to them in the treatment of the sick and a number of ancient manuscripts mention the use of surgical tools. Bone drills were used to remove diseased bone tissue and foreign objects of considerable thickness, such as a weapon, from a bone. Hooks were commonly used and came in two varieties, either sharp or blunt.  The sharp hooks were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that it could be extracted.  They were also used to retract the edges of the wounds. The spatula probe was used for the mixing, measuring and applying of different medications.  The medical scalpel was used to make a variety of incisions but it seemed to be particularly suited for making either deep or long cuts. Aetius, a 6th century physician, described using a forceps to crush the uvula before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.
Scalpels could be made of steel, bronze, or a combination of the two metals (such as a steel blade and a bronze handle). Ancient scalpels had almost the same form and function as their modern counterparts do today. The two long steel scalpels that make up the first and third columns of the accompanying image are examples of the most ordinary type of scalpel from antiquity. These long scalpels could be used to make a variety of incisions, but they seem to be particularly suited to making either deep or long cuts. The four bronze scalpels, which make up columns two and four, are generally referred to as "bellied scalpels." This variety of scalpel was another favorite of physicians in antiquity since the shape of its handle allowed more delicate and precise cuts to be made (such as incisions between ribs).
Hooks were another common instrument used regularly by Greek and Roman doctors. The hooks, the ancient doctors used, came in two basic varieties: sharp and blunt. Both of these types of hooks are still used by modern surgeons for many of the same purposes for which the ancient doctors first used them. For instance, blunt hooks were primarily used as probes for dissection and for raising blood vessels. Sharp hooks, were used to hold and lift small pieces of tissue so that they could be extracted and to retract the edges of wounds.
The Forceps, with their finely toothed jaws, were probably designed to facilitate the amputation of the uvula. This procedure, as described by Aetius in the first half of the sixth century, called for the physician to crush the uvula with forceps before cutting it off in order to prevent hemorrhaging.  Forceps also were used by ancient doctors to extract the small fragments of bone, which could not be grasped by the fingers. Naturally, physicians often used such forceps in conjunction with bone drills.
Bone drills were generally driven in their rotary motion by means of a thong in various configurations. Greek and Roman physicians used bone drills in order to excise diseased bone tissue from the skull and to remove foreign objects of considerable thickness (such as a weapon) from a bone.
Physicians in the Classical World employed catheters in order to open up a blocked urinary tract, which allowed urine to pass freely from the body. These early catheters were essentially hollow tubes made of steel or bronze and had two basic designs: one with a slight S curve for male patients and another straighter one for females. The same doctors also used similar shaped devices, which were solid, as opposed to hollow, in order to probe the bladder in search of calcifications.

The Phoenicians

The Phoenicians were enigmatic people, who left little in the way of written records. Much of what we know of them from ancient times was recorded by Greek and Roman historians who mentioned their seamanship and shrewd business dealings.
Napoleon III put modern historians in touch with the Phoenicians.  While subduing a revolt in Syria, he called upon the French scholar, Ernest Renan, to lead an expedition to the area, much as Napoleon the Great had done some fifty years earlier when he brought a group of scholars to Egypt during his campaign.
Because of Renan’s interest in Semitic languages, he was particularly keen on investigating the site of Byblos.  In addition to being a major Phoenician port, the name held linguistic implications.  “Byblos” the Greek word for papyrus, leads to “biblion” or book, while lead to “bible”.  Renan was pursuing an Old Testament reference, “Gebel”, which was the Semitic name for Byblos.  The trail ultimately lead to nothing for Renan’s linguistic research, but during the investigation he found several granite slabs covered with Egyptian hieroglyphs, and a bas-relief, which he believed to be the goddess Hathor.  The relief was, in fact, Baalat-Global the Phoenician earth-mother goddess.  This find was the beginning of the rediscovery of ancient Phoenicia.
Later, excavations that are more extensive produced a series of semi-intact royal tombs that yielded a glimpse of Phoenician treasure, including vessels of gold, silver, and obsidian, sandals and breastplates of gold, and an array of royal paraphernalia.  The most important find, however, was an inscription in the Phoenician alphabet on an elaborate sarcophagus:
“This coffin was made by Ithobaal, the son of Ahiram, King of Byblos, as the eternal resting place for his father.  If any ruler or governor or general attacks Byblos and touches this coffin, his scepter will be broken…”
This discovery in 1922 touched off a wave of excavation in Byblos and a renewed interest in the origin of the Phoenicians. Since ancient times, there has been speculation as to the origin of the Phoenicians.  The Greeks were particularly puzzled by the Phoenicians who suddenly appeared and built an empire in their midst.
They, in fact, gave them the name, “phoinikes” loosely translated as “red people” from the color of their land.  The Phoenicians called themselves Canaanites, and modern researchers tell us they were the descendents of two groups, the early Canaanites who inhabited the coast of Lebanon, and the Sea People who invaded Lebanon about 1200 BC.
The early Canaanites had a limited ship building technology, sailing only flat-bottomed barges that hugged the shore.  The invading Sea People, some of whom stayed on, introduced among other things, a much more sophisticated maritime technology.  Thus their descendents, the Phoenicians, appeared on the scene with an established maritime tradition, and the technology to build ships with a keeled hull.  This allowed them to sail the open seas, and as a result, the Phoenicians developed a flourishing sea trade.
They settled along the coast of Lebanon, in a loose federation of city-states that were built on islands of rocky promontories, which provided natural harbors for shipbuilding and trade.  The cities, Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, studded the seacoast like jewels, and their wealth became legendary.  At the height of their trading empire, they imported copper from Cyprus; linen from Egypt; ivory from India; tin from Spain; horses from Anatolia; and peacocks from Africa.  They became famous for their highly prized purple dye extracted from the murex snail, and for the fine timber cut from their forests.
Their major cultural contribution was their alphabet.  It consisted of 22 consonants, and was the foundation of our English alphabet, and it was the core for Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac script.
The Phoenicians were skilled artisans noted for their fine crafts, often “borrowing” a basic idea or technology and improving on it.  The craft of glass making was raised to a fine art by Phoenician artisans, and they may have been the first to develop blown glass.  Their terracotta vessels and pots often show a thoughtful refinement of shape, as do their votive statues.
The Phoenicians worshipped a triad of deities, each having different names and attributes depending upon the city in which they were worshipped, although their basic nature remained the same.  The primary god was El, protector of the universe, but often called Baal.
The son, Baal or Melqart, symbolized the annual cycle of vegetation and was associated with the female deity Astarte in her role as the maternal goddess.  She was called Asherar-yam, Our Lady of the Sea, and in Byblos, she was Baalat, our dear lady.  Astarte was linked with mother goddesses of neighboring cultures, in her role as combined heavenly mother and each mother.  Cult statues of Astarte in many different forms were left as votive offerings in shrines and sanctuaries as prayers for good harvest, for children, and for protection and tranquility in the home.  The Phoenician triad was incorporated in varying degrees by their neighbors and Baal and Astarte eventually took on the look of Greek deities.
The Phoenicians reached the peak of their culture around 1,000 BC, when they had established trading colonies in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Africa and Spain.  Their North African city of Cartage was founded about 800 BC and remained strong until the sack of the Romans in 146 BC.  The great city-states of Phoenicia ended with the fall of Tyre to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 573 BC.  The glory of the Phoenicians was in decline, when in 332 BC Alexander the Great conquered Tyre and the remnants of the Phoenician culture were swept into the Hellenistic Empire.

Ancient Glass History

Little is known about the production of glass in the ancient world. One early source, Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 89), reported the tale of natron (soda) merchants who, when they stopped to prepare a meal, supported their cooking vessels on the beach with blocks from their cargo.  The heat of the fire fused natron and sand, and a new substance was formed. This, Pliny says, was the origin of glass.
Glass-like materials were used in Egypt long before the production of glass itself. Egyptian faience, a popular material used in the production of amulets and small vessels, was a mixture of quartz sand with an alkali binder. It was molded, and then fired, causing a bright glaze to migrate to the surface. Real glass is more difficult to produce, because its ingredients must be heated to a high enough temperature to melt and then fuse completely. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets contain some references to glass making, indicating that it was a very difficult and secret undertaking. There is no ancient recipe for the making of glass, but it may be that in an attempt to duplicate the glazes formed in pottery making, the mixture of sand, soda and lime bonded compatibly, thus forming the 4,000 year old lump of blue rod found near Eshuna, which dates from 2,000 BC, is the earliest glass that has been found.
In about 1,500 BC, the technique of “core forming” developed in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. This new method was an important breakthrough in glass making. It was a technique that remained in use for over a thousand years, allowed for the production of glass vessels in a thousand years, and allowed for the production of glass vessels in variety of shapes. A core of mud of about the same size as the completed vessel was placed on the end of an iron rod. A second rod was dipped into containers of colored molten glass, and the glass was wound around the core material. This process was repeated many times until the core was covered.  The next step was to wind bands of colored glass around the core glass and to comb them into a design. The final additions – the rim, the base and may be the handles – were added last. The piece was slowly cooled and then polished. It was a lengthy and expensive process, and core-formed glass was available only to rulers and nobility.
The Millefiori technique (Italian for “a thousand flowers”) was also known in Mesopotamia as early as 1500 BC. This method required a group of various colored glass rods to be placed in a cylindrical mold. They were heated and fused together, and were then pulled from a small tube, like taffy. This created a pattern that was then sliced and placed side by side into a decorative mold, in order to create the final shape. This method too was expensive and time consuming to produce and its colorful patterns were again available only to the wealthy.
Glass blowing was probably the greatest single advance in glass technology. This revolutionary process was discovered around the middle of the first century BC and seems to have been practiced from the first century AD on. It involved capturing a molten glass bubble on a hollow metal blowpipe and inflating it to the desired shape and size. It could be either blown free form or blown into a mold, or a combination of two. The speed and relative ease with which this technique could be handled opened new vistas for the production and use of glass in the ancient world.
Glass blowing developed at a time when the Roman Empire, under Augustus Caesar and his successors, wanted peace (Pax Romana), stability and a better way of life, and this included consumer goods. The combination of a new technology and a demand on the part of the Roman citizen allowed the new method to forge ahead, and blown glass began to rival pottery and metalwork, both in speed of production and in variety of shapes and sizes. Its smooth surface was easy to clean for reuse, eliminating the storage problem of porous pots.
Syria became the “glass factory” of the Roman Empire, and goods were shipped and stored in glass bottles and wine flowed from glass jugs. Blown glass was finally inexpensive and available to all.
Today, many examples of ancient Roman Glass are available to collectors. Unguent aria or “tear bottles”, as they are often called, are the most common items of Roman blown glass. They vary in size, but usually have a somewhat bulbous base with a long slender neck and a flat rim. The color varies from colorless to pale blue/ greenish hues, and they sometimes are covered with an iridescent patina. Unguent aria was used for perfumes, cosmetics, and oils, and is fine examples of ancient glass that can be collected today.